Outline of Turks and Turkish States
Turks who first appear in history
in the 7th century B.C. at the foot of the Köğmen Mountains, are a society whose
language is of the
Ural-Altaic linguistic group. Throughout history the Turks
have established numerous states in various geographical regions on the
continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. Since they possessed a pioneering spirit
they brought their culture to the places to which they had migrated and were
also affected by the cultures of these regions. According to Chinese records,
Turkish political history in Asia commenced with the Huns.
Turks and the First Turkish States
Turks who first appear in history
in the 7th century B.C. at the foot of the Köğmen Mountains, are a society whose
language is of the
Ural-Altaic linguistic group. Throughout history the Turks
have established numerous states in various geographical regions on the
continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. Since they possessed a pioneering spirit
they brought their culture to the places to which they had migrated and were
also affected by the cultures of these regions. According to Chinese records,
Turkish political history in Asia commenced with the Huns. Up
Huns
The Hun State, which first
appeared in the 3rd century B.C became a significant and powerful state during
the reign of its founder, Mete Khan. Having a defined and special strategy, Mete
Khan defeated the Mongols and then the Yuechis and after, having taken the
western gates and trade routes of China under his control, gained significant
economic power. When Mete Khan died, the Great Hun Empire was at its peak due to
its military organization, domestic and foreign policies, religion, army, war
strategies and arts. Up
Sculpture of Kül Tegin
Ulaanbaatar-Mongolia. |
Gokturks
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The
Inscription on the west side of the 2nd Tonyukuk Monument |
After the collapse of the Asian
Hun State, a new state called the Göktürk Empire was founded at the foot of the
Altay mountains. The Göktürks who were the first to employ the word "Turk" in
their official state name, chose Ötüken, the former capital of the empire as a
base and established Khanates. Later they spread out and became an Empire. They
professed that a khanate could not be ruled by means of war and bravery alone
and that wisdom was very important. Bilge Khan and Kül Tegin are noted as the
wisest and most heroic figures among Turkish statesmen in history. It was
because of this that both the Khans and Tonyukuk, another Göktürk Khan,
immortalized their accomplishments with inscriptions. These inscriptions are the
first written texts of the Turkish language. Up
Uigurs
The Uigur Turks, who were the
native tribes of the Orhun and Selenge valleys, established the third great
Turkish State in 741. They later were dispersed by an attack of the Kyrgyz Turks
in the north-western part of the capital.Up
The Western Turks and the "Sword of the God of War"
The West Huns, descendents of the Asia Huns who lived in the Turkistan region
and around Lake Aral, left their homeland due to the pressure exerted by the
Uars and migrated west of the Volga. After Başbuğu (commander-in-chief) Balamir
defeated the East Goths and attacked the West Goths, the Visigoths fled westward
with the Hun soldiers in pursuit. This is how the "Tribal Migration", that
changed the ethnic composition of Europe, all the way to Spain which caused
turmoil in the Northern Districts of the Roman Empire, began.
In 434, Atilla assumed control of the West Hun Empire which is the first known
Turkish State established in Europe. During Atilla’s reign, the barbarian tribes
of Europe were defeated, even Byzantium and Rome submitted and the borders of
the West Hun empire expanded from the shores of the Rhine river to those of the
Volga river. The Christian world even believed that the God of War, Aries, had
given his sword to Atilla. With this sword the authority to conquer and rule the
world was given to Atilla.
Atilla who died in 453 went down in history as the most famous and skillful
commander of all time. This great commander became a legend-like figure and
tales of his achievements spread throughout Europe. Atilla became the subject of
books, poems, novels, paintings, operas and sculptures. With Atilla’s death, the
incursion of Turks in Europe subsided.
The West Huns were pioneers in opening up the way to Europe for the Turks, who
not only took their culture and civilization to Europe but also protected those
civilizations that were threatened by barbarian tribes in Europe. This resulted
in a migration from Asia to Europe that would last for 900 years.Up
Avars
A second Turkish tribe that was
respected and feared in Europe was the Avars who followed the West Huns.
The Avars, who left their homeland in Central Asia and escaped towards the West
when the Göktürk State was founded in 552, played an important role in European
history. They first came to Caucasia and the north of the Black Sea, and fought
against and defeated the Turkish tribes such as the Sabirs and Onogurs. They
went all the way to the banks of the Danube River. They frequently went to the
Balkans. They founded a civilization that spanned from present day Yugoslavia to
Germany. They reigned over the Slavs in the Danube area and the Bulgarians
living on the shores of the Black Sea. During the reign of their commander Bayan
Kağan Khan, the borders of the Avar Empire stretched from the Dnieper River to
the Elbe River and from the North Sea to the Adriatic coast. They laid siege to
İstanbul in 626 with the Bulgarian Turks. The first Turks in history to lay
siege to İstanbul were the Avars. The constant attacks of the French Emperor
Charlamagne which began in 791 and lasted 15 years, diminished the power of the
Avars. They wished to settle in the plateau between the Danube and the Tizsa
rivers. The French attacks continued and the Avar group dispersed in the
Balkans. In 805, they lost their national identity. Up
Khazars
After the Avar existence in Europe
came to an end, a new Turkish State called the Khazars came into being. The
Khazars, who were considered the continuation of the Göktürks, appeared after
the Avars defeated the Sabir State in the east of Europe. Between the 7th and
8th centuries they founded a strong state that spanned from the Volga to the
Dnieper, and from Çolman to Kiev. The Khazars established a period of peace in
East Europe during the 7th-9th centuries. The Khazar State was extremely
tolerant regarding the religious beliefs of the people living under its
domination, and it is considered one of the first and few states that showed
religious tolerance. The Caspian Sea (Khazar Sea as it is called in Turkish) is
named after this state, in which the most widespread language was Turkish. The
Khazars were attacked by the Pechenegs from the eastern steppes and could not
stop their spread to the west. They were not able to withstand the attacks of
the Russian forces on the Khazar cities for long. The Russian army captured most
of the Khazar lands during the reign of the last Khazar Khan Yusuf. The Khazars
political existence as a state came to an end in 968.Up
Pechenegs
Another Turkish tribe that
appeared in eastern and southeastern Europe and in the Balkans in the 10th
century was the Pechenegs. The Pechenegs, who were not able to withstand the
pressure of the Khazar-Oghuz alliance crossed the Volga and reached Hungary.
They settled in these lands and the Hungarians, who lived there, were compelled
to leave. They spread out on the steppes from the Don River to the west of the
Dnieper. In the 11th century they descended down the Dnieper to present-day
Bessarabia. When in 1091 they joined forces with the Emir of İzmir Caka Bey, to
take İstanbul, they suffered the most bitter defeat in their history in the
battle with the Byzantine-Cuman forces on the shores of the Maritza river. In
accordance with their traditions, many chose to die in battle. The Byzantines
executed all the Pechenegs they had captured. Thus, the political life of the
Pechenegs ceased. The surviving Pechenegs went to Hungary. Those that were
captured by the Byzantines remained in Macedonia. With the end of the Pechenegs,
the first stage of the advance of the Turks into Europe came to an end. The
Turks would not be seen in Europe for another 200 years.Up
Turkish History in the Islamic Period
After the decline of the Uigur
State in 840, the Karakhanid State was founded by the Karluks. The reign of the
Karakhanids is considered to be a turning point in Turkish history, because
Islam was adopted as the official religion during the reign of Satuk Buğra Khan,
the Karakhanid leader. The foundations of a historical development referred to
as Turkish-Islamic culture and civilization were laid in this period.
During the rule of the Karakhanids, there was another Turkish State, the
Ghaznavid State (936-1187), the capital city of which was Ghazi in Afghanistan.
Mahmud of Ghazna who was the first to use the title of "Sultan" islamized and
laid the foundation for today's Pakistan. The Ghaznavids had to retreat to India
after the Dandanakan War with the Seljuks in 1040 and finally came under the
sovereignty of the Seljuks.Up
The Alaeddin Caravanserai, by Alaeddin Keykubat I, 1229 (one of the best
examples of Seljuk architecture).
Seljuks
Another great Turkish State was
the Seljuk State (1040-1157) founded by Selçuk Bey who was a member of the Kınık
tribe of the Oghuz Turks. The borders of the state spanned from the Marmara Sea
to Lake Balkhash in Central Asia and from the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea and the
Aral Sea to the borders of India and Yemen. The Seljuks entered into a struggle
of hegemony with the two Turkish States, the Karakhanids and the Ghaznavids, and
succeeded in establishing Turkish unity. Tuğrul Bey, the Sultan of the Seljuks,
entered Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphate capital and ended the domination of the
Buwayhids, a Persi Shiite dynasty, in 1055. Therefore, the Caliph bestowed upon
Tuğrul Bey the title of "Ruler of the World". During the reign of Sultan
Alparslan, the successor and son of Tuğrul Bey, the territories of the country
expanded significantly. Sultan Alparslan defeated the Byzantine army which was
led by Romanus Diogenes at Manzikert (Malazgirt) in 1071. This victory literally
opened up the gates of Anatolia to the Turks. During the reign of Sultan Malik
Shah, the Seljuk State experienced its most successful period. The Nizamiye
Madrasahs which laid the foundations for the architecture of western
universities were constructed in this period.
After Sultan Malik Shah died, the country was divided into small states. The
Syrian Seljuks (1092-1117), Iraq and Khorasan Seljuks (1092-1194), Kirman
Seljuks (1092-1187) and the Anatolian Seljuks (1092-1194) were among the small
states. Moreover, the Khorezm Shah State (1097-1231) was established by Mohammed
Khorezm Shah, the son of Anushtegin, the palace servant of Sultan Malik Shah, on
the territories of the Great Seljuk State where Lake Aral intersected the Ceyhun
River in the southern region.
The most important state established on the lands of the Great Seljuk State was
definitely the Anatolian Seljuk State. The center of the state founded by
Suleiman ibn Qutulmish was Nicaea (İznik). During the reign of his son, Kılıç
Arslan I, the First Crusade began. İznik was seized by the Crusaders and given
to the Byzantines, and therefore the Anatolian Seljuk capital was moved to
Konya. His son Sultan Mesud I repelled the Byzantine army headed for Konya and
defeated the Crusaders near the Ceyhan River. Sultan Kılıç Arslan II, the
successor of Mesud I defeated the Byzantine army under the leadership of the
Emperor Manuel Comnenus I, at Myriokephalon near Denizli. Following this
victory, the influence of the Byzantine Empire over Anatolia was completely
lost. The most brilliant period of Turkish history was experienced during the
reign of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I. However, the death of the Sultan by
poisoning created chaos in the country. The rebellion of the Babais was followed
by the Mongol invasion and Anatolia was occupied and destroyed by the Mongols
following the Kösedağ War between the Seljuks and Mongols in 1243. Along with
the weakening of Mongol rule towards the end of the 13th century, Turkoman
groups who settled on the frontiers during the Seljuk period, founded many
beyliks (principalities) of varying size in Anatolia. The Karaman, Germiyan,
Eşref, Hamid, Alaiye, Menteşe, Candar, Pervane, Sahib Ata, Karesi, Saruhan,
Aydın, İnanç and Osmanoğulları were among the Turkoman beyliks founded in
Anatolia during this period. In this period, which is called the Beyliks Period,
all of Anatolia came under Turkish rule and a new period of welfare began in the
country which had been previously exposed to a great extent to Mongol
destruction.
In Egypt, the army commander İzzeddin Aybeg was declared the Sultan, after the
death of Es-Salih Necmeddin, the last Ayyubid ruler and thus the Turkish Kölemen
(Mameluke) State (1250-1382) was founded. The Mameluke State has an important
place in Turkish history, because during the reign of Sultan Aybeg, the Mansure
Victory occurred which made the Seventh Crusade ineffective. During the reign of
Seyfeddin Kotuz, the Mongol- Armenian-Crusaders alliance which tried to invade
Egypt suffered a crushing defeat and the Mongols were not able to capture Syria.
The Mameluke Sultans were bestowed the title of "Hadımü'l- Harameyn" (the
Servant of Mecca and Medina), because of their distinguished service to Islam,
and acquired justified fame in the Islamic World. The Mameluke State was
defeated by the Ottoman State. Up
Tamerlane State
One of the most important states
of the 14th century was the Tamerlane State (1370-1507). It was founded by
Tamerlane, who was a provincial governor in one of the Çağatay khanates.
Tamerlane expanded the borders of the state from the Volga River to the Ganges
River in India, and from the Tanrı Mountains to İzmir and Damascus in a short
period of 35 years. The Empire disintegrated after the death of Tamerlane just
as rapidly as it had been established. Only Hüseyin Baykara from the Tamerlane
dynasty could manage to hold out in Khorasai Herat, the capital city, which
became one of the most significant cultural centers in Turkish history. Ali şir
Nevai, the Turkish poet and statesman, was educated there.
The Turkoman group of the Karakoyunlu, founded the Karakoyunlu State (1370-1507)
between Irbil and Nakhichevan. This state was formed by the Yıva, Yazır, Döğer
and Avşar tribes and the Oghuz Turks. Kara Yusuf, the ruler of the Karakoyunlu
State, had to take refuge in the Ottoman state during the reign of Yıldırım
Beyazid as a result of the pressure exerted by Tamerlane. This was considered to
be a reason for the Battle of Ankara. Kara Yusuf, who managed to recover after
this war reestablished his state after 1406 and captured Mardin, Erzincan,
Baghdad, Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Kazvin, and Sultaniye. After his death, the country
was dragged into chaos. Although Cihan Shah managed to reunite the state, he was
defeated by Akkoyunlu Uzun Hasan at Mardin and the country fell under the
hegemony of the Akkoyunlu State.
The Akkoyunlu State (1350-1502) was founded by Turkoman tribes who settled
around Diyarbakır-Malatya during the collapse of Mongol rule. The real founder
of the state is known to be Kara Yülük Osman Bey. The most powerful period of
the Akkoyunlu State was during the reign of Uzun Hasan. During his reign, the
borders of the state extended from the Caspian Sea to Syria, and from Azerbaijan
to Baghdad. However, his defeat in the Otlukbeli Battle in 1473 by Sultan Mehmet
the Conqueror was a heavy blow for him. This defeat helped in the collapse of
the Akkoyunlu State and paved the way for the founding of the Safavid State
(1501-1736) by Shah İsmail who managed with religious enthusiasm to get the
Turkoman groups of Ustaçlı, Rumlu, Musullu, Tekeli, Bayburtlu, Karadağlı,
Dulkadırlı, Karamanlı, Varsak and Avşar on his side.
Shah İsmail, who established political unity in Iran, expanded his territories.
The religious fervor of the Shiite sect played a role in his conquests. However,
his activities in Anatolia and also his attempts to annex Anatolia, provoked the
reaction of the Ottoman Yavuz Sultan Selim (Selim the Grim). Shah İsmail's army
was seriously defeated at the Battle of Çaldıran in 1514. Still, all his
successors continued fighting against the Ottomans. However, they were defeated
in almost all the battles they fought. The Safavid State ended in the Nadir Shah
period.
Zahiruddin Babür, a member of the Tamerlane dynasty, entered India and founded
the Turkish-Indian (Babür) Empire (1526- 1858). He became famous for his work
written in Turkish called, "Vekayi Babürname". After his death, during the
reigns of his sons, Humayun and Ekber, this state developed even further and a
large portion of the Indian subcontinent was united under one rule. The period
of Hürrem, who had assumed the name of Shah Cihan (Shah of the World) upon
ascending the throne, was the most brilliant period of the empire in terms of
politics and art. The Taj Mahal at Agra, which is considered to be one of the
most beautiful architectural monuments in the world, was constructed during his
reign. Architects were also sent from the Ottoman State in order to construct
the monument. Domestic turmoil which began during the reign of Alemgir I
continued until the reign of Shah Bahadır II. The British, who suppressed a
revolt in the country in 1857, annexed India to Britain and Queen Victoria was
officially declared the Empress of India. Up
Piri
Reis’s Map, 1500. Piri Reis was the first to chart the details of BEŞİK Bay
and the ÇANAKKALE Straits.
The Ottoman State (1299-1923)
 The Ottoman Empire was founded by a member of the Kayı Tribe of the Gülhan
branch, of the Oghuz Turks. Osman Bey came to power as a result of an Oghuz
beylik coalition and married the daughter of one of the Ani chiefs, thus gaining
more power and prestige. The Ottomans who succeeded in uniting the Turkish
Beyliks in Anatolia in a short period of time, crossed over to Rumelia. Süleyman
Bey, the son of Orhan Ghazi, went to Thrace in 1353 with an army of five
thousand men to capture the region to the north of İstanbul. One of the
important events in Turkish history was Süleyman Pasha’s entrance into Europe by
way of the Gallipoli Peninsula. The Ottomans advanced speedily in Rumelia.
Sultan Murad Khan I, who became sultan after the death of Orhan Ghazi was the
true conqueror of the Balkans. The Ottoman armies started to advance towards the
west through Thrace and Bulgaria in the 1350’s. In 1362 Edirne was taken and the
capital was moved from Bursa to this city. In 1363 Filibe and Zağra and the
Maritza Valley were taken. Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Mehmet the Conqueror), conquered
İstanbul in 1453. The Byzantine Empire fell and what is qualified as the Middle
Ages ceased with the New Age beginning at this point in time.
The Ottomans fought against the Serbs, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Venetians, the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, Britain, the Vatican, Poland, Spain and also France and
Russia from time to time in the west; and in the east and in the southeast
against the Akkoyunlus, Tamerlanes, Mamelukes, Safavids and the Karamanids,
which were Turkish states. They formed a world empire that would continue to
exist on three continents until the 19th century. Sultan Selim I (Selim the
Grim) conquered Egypt and the "Caliphate" passed from the Abbasids to the
Ottoman dynasty. During the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566), the
Ottoman State had a developed state organization, powerful army and was in
excellent financial condition. The borders of the Empire extended from the
Crimea in the north to Yemen and Sudan in the south, and from Iran and the
Caspian Sea in the east to Vienna in the northwest and Spain in the southwest.
However, in the 16th century the Ottoman Empire lost its economic and military
superiority in comparison to Europe. The nationalist movements that started in
the 19th century and the rebellions of the Balkan nations provoked by the
European States and Russia followed one another. The Christians abandoning the
empire founded independent states. The reform efforts of the Ottomans throughout
the 19th century were of no use. The most significant characteristic of the
First Constitutional Period in 1876, which coincided with the reign of Sultan
Abdülhamid II (1876- 1909), was that it provided a constitution based on a
Western model for the first time. The constitution was prepared by a group of
intellectuals called the "Young Turks" who forced Sultan Abdülhamid to accept
this constitution and thus the Ottoman State was transformed into a
constitutional state. However, Sultan Abdülhamid disbanded Parliament in 1877
and terminated constitutional rule, using the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1879
as a pretext. The Committee of Union and Progress which began activities as an
opposition organization founded by the Young Turks, first forced the Sultan to
repromulgate the Constitution in 1908 and later seized power after the rebellion
of March 31. This led to new problems and adventures for the Empire. The defeats
experienced in the Tripoli War (1911-1912) against the Italians and the Balkan
Wars (1912-1913) led the country to a single-party autocracy of the Union and
Progress. The First World War (1914 - 1918) in which the empire sided with
Germany brought about the end of the Empire. After the armistice signed at the
conclusion of the war, the Russians, British, and Greeks began their invasion of
Ottoman lands.Up
Ottoman
Culture and Civilization
The Ottoman Empire, who ruled three continents for 600 years, left a rich
cultural heritage. Furthermore, it contributed significantly to the history of
civilization by embracing the cultural, artistic, and scientific heritages of
the previous Turkish and non-Turkish states. The Ottoman Empire created rare
monuments illustrating architectural design and engineering. Stone and wood
carvings, the art of tile-making, ornamentation, miniature painting, calligraphy
and bookbinding also led to the creation of masterpieces during this period.
Above all, the Ottoman Empire was influential for hundreds of years in world
politics. The citizens of the empire of various religions, languages and
nationalities were treated justly and with tolerance. The Empire allowed the
nations within its borders to preserve their languages and cultures by granting
them religious freedom, in contrast to the policies and applications of many
other western imperial powers as England, France of the time.Up
Dolmabahçe
Palace (Chamber of Sehzades).
The National War of Independence (1919-1923): Turkish Republic -
Turkey
After the Armistice, the victors’ aim was to cut-up the Ottoman lands and share
them between themselves. Consequently, several defense fronts and resistance
organizations were founded in Anatolia and Thrace. The Turkish people needed to
unite their efforts to attain their freedom and this could only be achieved
under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal. The National War of Independence, which
would last for four years, began when Mustafa Kemal landed in Samsun on May 19,
1919 as the Inspector of the 9th Army. The circular issued in Amasya on June 22,
1919 was a national call and a declaration for salvation. It was followed by the
Erzurum and Sivas Congresses. The Turkish people ardently relayed to the world
their determination to attain national independence.
The Entente Powers officially occupied İstanbul and disbanded Parliament on
March 16th. Some members were arrested. Those that were not arrested fled to
Ankara and joined the struggle for National Independence. With the circular
issued on the 19th of March Mustafa Kemal announced that the disbanding of
Parliament marked the end of the 600 year-old reign of the Ottoman State and
that the Turkish Grand National Assembly would convene on the 23rd of April 1920
in Ankara. He added that only that Assembly possessed the right to represent the
people after the said date.
The Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA) began its activities on April 23,
1920 in Ankara. Mustafa Kemal was elected the President of the Assembly. The
fight for national independence would be conducted by this Assembly. After the
Assembly designated Mustafa Kemal Commander in Chief, the imperialist forces
were attacked on all fronts. The last connections between Ankara and İstanbul
ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sevres on 12 August 1920. The agreement
included very harsh stipulations for the Turks. According to the agreement, the
Turks could be sovereign on only a small part of Anatolia and their state would
be under the financial and military control of the foreign states.
Mustafa Kemal and the government in Ankara did not accept the Treaty of Sevres.
First the struggle, led by Kazım Karabekir in Eastern Anatolia against the
Armenians, who wished to establish an independent state there, was won and the
Gümrü Agreement was signed on December 2, 1920. This was the first international
agreement which was signed by the TGNA. On the Western front, the Greek Army
which occupied İzmir on May 15, 1919 and started to advance in the Aegean
region, was stopped by the First and Second İnönü Battles which took place
between January- April 1921. The Greek Army suffered a crushing defeat during
the Sakarya Battle between August-September 1921. France withdrew from Adana and
its environs in accordance with the Ankara Agreement signed in October 1921.
After that, all the forces and resources of the country were combined for a
great attack to be launched on the Western front. The Greek forces were defeated
during the Great Attack and the Commander-Chief-Battle which took place between
August-September 1922 and İzmir was liberated on September 9, 1922. This
military success would accelerate the establishment of the new Republic of
Turkey. The Mudanya Armistice was signed between the Ankara Government and the
Entente States on October 11th 1922, and it was decided that a conference would
be held in Lausanne some time later to discuss the conditions for a permanent
peace treaty. However, when the Entente States also invited the İstanbul
Government to send its delegation to this conference along with the Ankara
Government, the TGNA declared that the Caliphate was separate from the Sultanate
and that the sultanate was abolished on the 1st of November 1922. Mehmed IV (Vahideddin),
the last Ottoman Sultan, secretly fled the country aboard a British ship on
November 17, 1922.
Lausanne Peace Treaty (July 24, 1923). The war was won at the fronts and now it
was time to win the diplomatic war. The Lausanne negotiations, at which the
Ankara Government participated as the sole representative, commenced on November
21, 1922. The negotiations, at which İsmet İnönü presided over the Turkish
delegation as the Minister of Foreign affairs, were suspended in February 1923
due to disagreements concerning the future of capitulations. The negotiations,
resumed in April 1923 upon İsmet Pasha’s note. The Peace Treaty composed of 143
articles, 17 annexes, protocols and explanations ended the War of Independence.
The TGNA Government was officially recognized, Turkey’s national borders were
set, capitulations were lifted, the Ottoman debt was to be paid in instalments,
and the social, economic independence and sovereignty of Turkey were accepted.
The Treaty which was signed in Lausanne, Switzerland on July 24 1923 was
approved by the TGNA on the 23rd of August 1923 to give birth to The Republic of Turkey.Up
TransAnatolie Tour
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